The Alaska Peninsula Montane Taiga (APMT) is a rarity in the modern world. A region of high biodiversity and natural beauty, the ecosystem is relatively well preserved, unspoiled by the destructive forces of industry and resource extraction that have devastated parts of Alaska. Commercial ventures still have a negative effect on the ecosystem, but conservation efforts have protected most of the APMT’s flora and fauna. The APMT is home to one national park and multiples wildlife refuges that have allowed its diversity of animals, including a large brown bear population, to thrive free from the threat of human interference. Despite this ecosystem’s relative intactness, there is still much that can be done to ensure that the APMT remains an exception to  worldwide trends of environmental degradation.

Map of Alaska - The Alaska Peninsula Region is boxed.₁

Map of the Alaska Peninsula Region - The APMT is the yellow region.₂

 Regional Characteristics

Located on the southern portion of the Alaskan Peninsula, the APMT covers the region from the mouth of Cook Inlet on the east-most portion of the peninsula to the west-most tip of the peninsula. The APMT also includes Unimak Island, off the peninsula’s tip, and a large portion of the Kodiak Island archipelago. This region is characterized primarily by various dwarf scrub communities including dwarf, low, and tall scrubs. Scrub communities primarily consist of various species of dwarf shrubs, like crowberry, and willow. Due to its proximity to the ocean, the APMT has less extreme temperature fluctuations and higher precipitation than the average boreal forest. Furthermore, unlike most boreal forests, the APMT does not suffer from permafrost, as a result of its more moderate maritime climate. While the lack of permafrost is good for vegetation, this region’s soil is composed of volcanic ash and cinders, making it difficult for vegetation to flourish. Amidst the numerous mountain ridges of this region are volcanoes that range from 1600 to 2400 meters high.

A Mountain Range in the Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge₃

The History of the APMT

Native Alaskans have been the primary inhabitants of the APMT for most of its history.  However, during the 18^th and 19^th century, two European-generated booms in certain commodities played a large role in the development of APMT’s local economies and environments. The first major boom was The Russian Fur Boom, which occurred when Russians arrived on the Aleutian Islands in the mid eighteenth century and sought the valuable fur of seals and sea otters. After moving from Kodiak island through the Alaska Peninsula, the Russians established the Russian American company and constructed settlements along the APMT'S coastline. Ultimately, this boom’s environmental impact consisted of a severe decrease in the sea otter and seal population and the habitat dislocation caused by coastal Russian settlements. The second boom that affected the APMT was the Salmon boom, which led to the establishment of a salmon cannery on Kodiak Island in 1882. Due to a lack of government regulations, commercial overfishing became an issue and natives had less salmon to live off of. Consequently, native settlements that couldn’t subsist off of salmon were often replaced by salmon canneries. This marked an environmentally unfriendly shift from subsistence fishing to commercial fishing, although subsistence fishing among natives in the APMT is still prevalent today.

Sand Point, Alaska₄

The current environmental state of the APMT has not altered much from its historical state due to the paucity of human settlement in the region. What little settlement there has been in the APMT has largely resided near the coast, where small fisheries and ports have supported local economies. Sand Point is one of the only sizable cities in the APMT today, and it was "founded in 1898 by a San Francisco fishing company as a trading post and cod-fishing station.”₅ During the early 1900’s Sand Point became a center for selling and repairing gold mining machinery. In the 1930’s, gold-mining took a back-seat to fishing, which has been the pillar of Sand Point economy every since. The rest of the APMT has similarly relied on commercial and subsistence fishing during the 20^th century, with minor attempts at mining and coal/petroleum extraction. Thus, the APMT’s environment has been well preserved and protected for the past century, because of the negligible environmental impact of fishing and the lack of habitat dislocation brought on by significant population growth.

Apollo Mine on Unga Island circa 1891-1922₆

Another reason for the pristine condition of the APMT is the lack of significant industrial intervention in the region, during the 20th century. One reason for this lack of interest is, as geologist Bryan Sralla says, the fact that the Alaskan Peninsula “is largely devoid of significant reservoir targets,”₇ for oil. In the first half of the 20^th century the possibility of oil led many oil companies to the Alaskan Peninsula, with regional interest reaching a peak in the 1940’s and 1950’s. However, after companies came upon a few dry wells, optimism about regional oil exploration flamed out, and it has been dead for quite some time. Regarding the APMT's mining history, the Apollo mine on Unga Island was an economically viable gold mine that produced 150 ounces of gold from 1891 to 1922, but it has been abandoned for quite some time.Consequently, the APMT did not suffered much from the debilitating impact of oil extraction and mining during the 20th century.

Current Human Impact on the APMT

An aerial shot of the Katmai National Park₈

The APMT is home to seven protected areas including four wildlife refuges, one national monument, one game sanctuary and one national park. In the entire Alaska Peninsula, 69% of the lands are owned by the federal government and 18% of the lands are owned by the state of Alaska. Of these federally managed areas, the Katmai National Park (KNP) is notable for protecting a large brown bear population and preserving the waterways that feed the Bristol Bay red salmon fishery. While the KNP has a largely positive environmental impact, it still allows for the sport hunting of brown bears. Concerns about brown bear over-hunting emerged when the NPS increased the number of brown bear harvests, and there was a decrease in observable bears. In a 2011 newsletter the NPS pledged to reduce the number of annual hunts in the KNP from 28 to 21, but the NPS has not released any data verifying whether brown bear hunting has decreased. Despite the continued brown bear hunting, Katmai National Park is one of the many public conservation areas in the APMT that allows the region's flora and flauna to flourish. As the figures below demonstrate, the percentage of protected land in the APMT has increased from 1999 to 2006.

Conservation Status of regions in the APMT in 1999₉

Section Name	Alaska Peninsula	West Kodiak Island
Protected Status - Status 1 & 2 (% of ecoregion)	44.40%	0%
Moderately Protected - Status 3 (% of ecoregion)	12.90%	43.40%
Unprotected - Status 4 (% of ecoregion)	42.70%	56.60%
Total Area (km^2)	37,315	8,790

"Status 1 is represented by an area with an active management plan in operation to maintain a natural state, within which natural disturbance events are allowed to proceed without interference or are mimicked through management.

Status 2 is represented by an area generally managed for natural values but which may receive use that degrades the quality of existing natural communities.

Status 3 is represented by public lands not designated for protection or management of natural values. Legal mandates prevent the permanent conversion of natural habitat types to anthropogenic habitat types and confer protection to federally listed endangered and threatened species.

Status 4 is represented by private or public lands without an existing easement or management agreement to maintain native species and natural communities and which are managed for intensive human use."₉

Conservation Status of regions in the APMT in 2006 ₁₀

Ecoregion	Alaska Peninsula	Kodiak Island
Total Area (Acres)	25,533,884	3,144,935
CMS 1 and 2 (% of ecoregion)	70.70%	63.80%
CMS 3 (% of ecoregion)	0.10%	0.00%
CMS 4 (% of ecoregion)	18.10%	10.90%
Native-Owned Lands (% of ecoregion)	11.20%	25.30%
CMS 1 & 2 and Native-Owned Lands (% of ecoregion)	81.80%	89.10%
Increase With Native-Owned Lands (% of ecoregion)	15.80%	39.70%

"CMS 1 = A management plan permanently protects the total land system, allowing natural disturbance events; motorized access is limited.

CMS 2 = A management plan protects the total land system but some/all natural disturbance events are suppressed and human use occurs on more than 5% of land

CMS 3 = Management includes protection of select ecological features; intensive anthropogenic use (e.g. resource extraction, military exercises, developed/motorized recreation) occurs on more than 5% of the land.

CMS 4 Public = Publicly owned, but not subject to a management plan or regulation that includes protection of ecological features.

CMS 4 Private = Privately owned and either management intent is unknown or management intent doesn't protect for ecological features."₁₀

"Eskimo man tends his racks of drying salmon" - An example of subsistence₁₁

In addition to protected areas, local conservation groups including watershed councils, land trusts, and tribal associations, also have a positive impact on the environment. Organizations like the Nushagak Mulchatna Wood-Tikchik Land Trust (NMWLT) are working to protect watersheds, salmon habitats, and various animal habitats near the APMT. From 1906-1971, the Alaska Native Allotment Act allowed Alaska Natives to purchase parcels of land throughout the state. Within the past decade or so, a decrease in commercial salmon revenue, has led many Natives to sell their land to commercial sport hunting/fishing companies. The NMWLT asserts that the commercialization of these land allotments is causing a drain on the resources that allow natives to subsist on the land. To combat habitat degradation, the NMWLT seeks to prevent commercialized land from being over-developed. While the environmental pressures of commercialization in the APMT are ruinous, local organizations like the NMWLT are trying to conserve resources that are crucial to the ecosystem’s health. 

"Kodiak sometime shortly after 1900"₁₂

Kodiak Today₁₃

As mentioned earlier, native peoples of the APMT still subsist of the resources that the ecosystem provides them with. According to a 2004 Nature Conservancy report, “In comparison to state per capita averages, southwest Alaska residents harvest 2.5 times as much wild food (SWAMC 2003).” While native subsistence is prevalent in the APMT, competitive and commercial fishing play a big role in the economy of cities like Kodiak. These fishing practices dwindle the salmon population, reducing the food supply for both predators and subsisting natives. Putting commercial fishing aside, sport fishing accounts for over one third of jobs in the Alaska Peninsula and is unlikely to comprise a growing portion of the local economy as time goes on.

Future Human Impact on the APMT

The future human impact on the APMT’s environment will likely remain low thanks to strong conservation efforts, low population-pressures, and a low degree of industrial impact. An increase in sport hunting and sport fishing may cause certain species’ populations to dwindle, but the general practice of subsistence keeps the region relatively well-preserved. However, one activity that may increase the future human impact on the APMT is oil and natural gas extraction.  Recent research into the APMT’s oil and natural gas potential has sparked some interest from companies, although there has been little extraction as of yet. In 2007, geologist Bryan Sralla conducted a field investigation that revealed evidence for the existence of a large carbonate reservoir under the Alaska Peninsula. Hewitt Mineral Corp, the company that employed Sralla, leased land on the Herondeen Bay and developed plans to dig 14,000 to 15,000 foot wells for natural gas extraction. Ultimately, Hewitt never went through with these plans, opting to relinquish its leases on the land. The state of Alaska is continuing offer land for oil companies to purchase despite there having been no bids for land from 2008 through 2010. If oil companies choose to take advantage of Alaska’s offer, the APMT may see an increase in environmental degradation due to oil/natural gas extraction. 

Map of Alaska Peninsula with regions of potential gas and oil  labeled₁₄

Another potential increase in future human impact may result from increased mining in the APMT. Recently, companies such as Full Metal Minerals and Redstar Gold Corp have shown interest in the APMT’s mining potential, with Redstar returning to old sites like the Apollo Mine. This flux of mining activity is having a negative impact on the environment, because mining leaves land vulnerable to erosion, causing land and water pollution. Mining can also lead to acid mine drainage, which occurs when the harmful dissolved metals seep into rivers and lakes. The degree of mining in the APMT relatively low, but if mining companies decide to amp up their efforts in the region, the environment will suffer. Thus, the future of the APMT's environmental status will primarily be determined by whether mining and oil devlopment will drastically increase. Other ecologically harmful activities like sport fishing and hunting will may increase incrementally over-time, but metal and oil commodities are more likely to experience the sudden booms that lead to environmental degradation.

 Actions that Conservationists Can Take to Preserve the APMT

Despite the low level of current human impact in the APMT, conservationists can still push for preventive measures to stave off a decline in the region’s natural health.  One step to maintaining the environment would be for Alaska to limit the amount of land it offers to mining and oil companies and ensure that the resource extraction processes are relatively eco-friendly. While there aren’t many mining or oil companies vying for land currently, the state government still needs to ensure that the ecosystem will not suffer too severely if there is a boom in mining/oil interest. Conservationists must put pressure on the NPS to confirm that the Katmai National Park decreases the amount of brown bear hunts it allows for annually. Sport fishing also has a negative impact on the ecosystem, and legislation to regulate that activity would be a step in the right direction. These efforts to limit environmentally destructive activities will help to maintain the natural order of the APMT ecosystem.

Brown Bears in the Katmai National Park₁₅

In addition to preventative measures, conservationists must also look towards developing and expanding conservation areas. A book called Terrestrial Ecosystems of North America recommended that the Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge use Exxon Valdez settlement funds to expand the refuge in 1999. Similar actions can be employed to increase the amount of land managed by the government, rather than private companies. Conservationists must carefully select what habitats/species of animals to target so that they can decide whether to develop federally managed land or purchase new land for conservation. Along with protecting terrestrial species, conservationists must also protect aquatic animals by employing ecologically sustainable water management and securing instream flow reservations. These two actions will help to preserve aquatic life and the animals who feed off of it.  Lastly, if future and current infrastructure and resource extraction projects are harmful to these targeted, at-risk habitats, conservationists must intervene to prevent damaging industrial activities. All of these conservation efforts will go a long way in helping to preserve the natural splendor of the APMT.

Reference List 

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             <http://www.commerce.state.ak.us/dca/commd/CIS.cfm?Comm_Boro_name=Sand%20Point>.

7. Bailey, Alan. "Alaska Peninsula worth Another Look." Petroleum News. 14 Oct. 2007.

             Web. <http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/194482742.shtml>.

9. Duffy, David C., Keith Boggs, Randall H. Hagenstein, Robert Lipkin, and Julie A. Michaelson. 

            "Landscape Assessment of the Degree of Protection of Alaska's Terrestrial Biodiversity." Conservation Biology 

            13.6 (1999): 1332-1343. Wiley Online Library. 24 Dec. 2011. Web.
            http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98063.x/full

10. Smith, Corinne, Shane Feirer, Randy Hagenstein, Amalie Couvillion, and Sarah Leonard.

"Assessing Protection of Alaska's Biodiversity." The Nature Conservancy.  June 2006. Web.

<http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/alaska/placesweprotect/alaska-conservation-blueprint.pdf>

“Alaska Peninsula and Bristol Bay Basin ECOREGIONAL ASSESSMENT." The Nature Conservancy. Dec.2003. 

<http://east.tnc.org/eastfile/72/Alaska_Peninsula_and_Bristol_Bay_Basin_Ecoregional_Assessment.pdf>

Berg, Linda R., Mary Catherine. Hager, and Hassenzhal M. David. Visualizing EnvironmentalScience. 3^rded. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley in Collaboration with the National Geographic Society, 2011.

                                                                                                                 
Lidji, Erik. "Hewitt Drops N. Aleutian Leases; Armstrong Adds North Slope Acres." Petroleum

             News. 14 Nov. 2010. Web.

            <http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/311186021.shtml>

Pearson, Roger W., Edwin W. Rhoades, and Carol E. Lewis. "Alaska Multibooms." University of 
           Alaska Fairbanks. N.p., Jan. 1990. Web. <http://www.uaf.edu/files/snras/C73.pdf>

"Katmai Guided Hunting Concession." National Parks Conservation Association.  2012. Web.

             <http://www.npca.org/protecting-our-parks/wildlife-habitat/katmai-guided-hunting.html>.

Lasley, Shane. "Mining News: Explorers Return to Alaska Peninsula." Petroleum News.  20

            Nov. 2011. Web. <http://www.petroleumnews.com/pntruncate/403493638.shtml>.

"Our Mission." Nushagak-Mulchatna Wood-Tikchik Land Trust. Web.

           <http://www.nmwtlandtrust.org/who/mission.php>.

Ricketts, Taylor H. Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America: A Conservation Assessment.
            Washington,D.C.: Island, 1999.

.

Pictures

1. Map of Alaska Retrieved from the Greenwich Mean Time Website: 

            http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/usa/alaska/time-alaska/

2. Wild Finder - Alaska Peninsula. Retrieved from the World Wild Finder Website: 

          http://worldwildlife.org/science/wildfinder/

3. Mountain Range, Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge. (21 May 2004). Originally From the U.S. Fish  

             and Wild Life National Digital Library Website: 

             http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mountain_Range_Alaska_Peninsula_NWR.jpg#filehistory

4. Sand Point, AK: A View From Sand Point Cemetary Hill. (1 May 2006). Retrieved from the City Data Website:

             http://www.city-data.com/picfilesc/picc14158.php

6. Apollo Mine on Unga Island. (29 March 2011). Retrieved from the NWSCA and Fishing Photos Website:

             http://www.nwsalmoncanners.org/photo/?level=picture&id=50

8.  Aerial of the road heading towards the volcanic landscape of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes in 

Sand Point, AK : View from Sand Point Cemetary Hill

Read more: http://www.city-data.com/picfilesc/picc14158.php#ixzz2DTwzENSU

Sand Point, AK : View from Sand Point Cemetary Hill

Read more: http://www.city-data.com/picfilesc/picc14158.php#ixzz2DTwzENSU

Sand Point, AK : View from Sand Point Cemetary Hill

Read more: http://www.city-data.com/picfilesc/picc14158.php#ixzz2DTwzENSU

             Katmai National Park, Alaska. Retrieved from the Alaska-in-Pictures Website:

             http://www.alaska-in-pictures.com/katmai-national-park-aerial-valley-of-ten-thousand-smokes-road-6310-pictures.htm 

11. Eskimo man tends his racks of drying salmon. Originally from the Alaska-in-Pictures Website

            http://northwesttribes.wordpress.com/foodways/eskimo-man-tends-his-racks-of-drying-salmon-2/

12. Kodiak, Alaska 1900s. (17 September 2009). Originally from the Wikipedia Website:
            http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kodiak,_Alaska_1900s.jpg#filehistory

13. Retrieved from the Kodiak (Alaska's Emerald City) Website: http://www.kodiak.org/business.html

_{14. Map showing Bristol Bay region and Alaska Peninsula... From The National Energy Technology Lab Website:
             http://www.netl.doe.gov/index.html}

_{15. Grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis), Katmai National Park, Alaska, USA. (13 December, 2010) Retrieved 
            From the Flickr Website (picture for World Wild Finder): 
            http://www.flickr.com/photos/56601430@N05/5257995300/}